Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Review - Essay Example In a more comprehensive sense, the song teaches life skills that are important to learn for the execution of daily activities in life. It has a repetitive approach in the form of a song that is attractive to the intended audience. It makes the audience have a sense of time and ensure punctuality in all their endeavors. It uses a simple language that is understandable and gives a full preview of the day’s activities from home to school and back. It analyzes different activities from the time they wake to the time they go to sleep. The songs objective is to teach young children how to observe the time by memorizing their daily activities. The song uses a repetitive style so that children can internalize it and understand their responsibilities. It gives a narrative of the children activities throughout the day in a comprehensive way that captures every aspect of their lives. In that accord, it demonstrates some important subjects such as cleanliness, education, health, and play for the children. The information is illustrated in various media such as audio, video and print. The song writer intended it for elementary school. The method used, and the format depicts the experience of young children. This is a class of children who cannot comprehend complex subject or learning methods and, therefore, rely on simple repetitive songs and poems. Their proficiency is very minimal because they are at the beginners’ level of training. The type that fits this style of study is between 3 to 5 years. This is evident in the repetitive style of the song. Additionally, the themes reveal the audience to be people in their first stages of life. They are taught the essential activities like washing themselves, going to school, playing, cleanliness, and sleeping time. These are important topics in children in the above age bracket because they help in their physical and cognitive development. According to

To Elsie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

To Elsie - Essay Example But by the end of the first stanza I realized that Williams was in fact speaking of a different kind of "pure" - that is the inbreeding within families, especially in rural areas, that creates physical and mental monstrosities. I thought of a group of teenagers I had met from West Virginia who clearly were an example of this "purity" gone wrong. The description of Jersey fits in with the same vision. There is obviously a lot of energy among these "devil-may-care men" and the "young slatterns", but it is almost like the energy of pigs rutting in mud. They mate a lot and reproduce; they eat a lot and so grow big - but there is nothing pleasant about either process. The idea of the girls submitting to the physical advances of the men "without emotion save numbed terror" gave me a vision of times in my own life when sex occurred as an accident or through the effect of drink. There is nothing romantic or loving about these people, and Williams made me think about my own life in a way that I usually avoid because of the conclusions that will be drawn from the examination. Throughout the poem I wondered who the "Elsie" was that is referred to in the title, and eventually I discovered that it was the handicapped nursemaid who works in the doctor's house. Once again the woman is a symbol of a kind of disgusting promiscuity, fertility and yet also physical handicap and weakness. As Williams writes of "her great ungainly hips and flopping breasts" I saw numerous women that I have seen and known who fitted this description. Williams does seem somewhat one-dimensional in his dismissal of the physical shape and nature of a pregnant woman or mother. The image of pigs returned again as he wrote of "as if the earth under our feet were an excrement of some sky" and that we are, like the pigs, destined to find food among our own waste products. Yet near the end of the play I was reminded that in fact human beings are more than this, because we do possess "imagination". While the "prisoners" that Williams speaks of may have to "strain" their imagination to make it work, and while the effort seems futile within the world as the poet sees it, the imagination does exist nevertheless. Within imagination there is something positive, hinted at by the "isolate flecks" from which "something is given off". To conclude, To Elsie is a powerful poem that effected me in many different ways. The images that Williams used were often unpleasant, but will remain in my mind for a long time. He reflects a certain reaction at the grossness of the world that exists within all of us at times, including me. Yet near the end of the poem he reminds us that there should be "something" more. It is this "something" that the poem reminded me of.

Identity Creation through Body Modification

Identity Creation through Body Modification Body modification  of one sort or another has always been practiced new technologies have opened up the possibility for radical change. This has meant that we can now change fundamental aspects of our bodies most obviously our biological sex, but also racial characteristics, signs of ageing and apparent physical imperfections. Basically will be looking at what it means to want to radically alter the body to believe indeed that we have the wrong body CASE STUDY: NIP TUCK Throughout the dissertation will be exploring the meanings acquired by the body in modern, western societies. In doing so the dissertation will examine the ways in which bodies are shaped, acted upon, represented and experienced. Therefore explore various ways in which the body has been seen as an object (the body we have), as a subject (the body we are) and as a project (the body that we become) and will explore how these processes are intimately linked to regimes of power and knowledge. For example, recent years have seen the increased prominence and significance of various body projects health and fitness, dieting, cosmetic surgery and body modification- alongside many contemporary problems associated with the body new reproductive technologies, genetic engineering, cybernetics, etc. As these examples show, the body in contemporary culture has become a malleable object crucial for the articulation of identities of race’, gender, and sub cultural affiliation. This dissertation will critically examine some of these contemporary trends whilst simultaneously focusing on their social and historical contexts to give us a broader understanding of their meanings and implications. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in many ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colourful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ehsan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects means well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark. â€Å"The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warriors often pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body.   Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favour, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-, nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and exercise—often used together—are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit—and thin—future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell.   Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia â€Å"itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, to become an/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†Ã¢â‚¬â€anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food—binging—followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Bordon sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest the confines of femininity.   Exercise, on the other hand, be a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise—for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Raceland Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide abroad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification—such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise—are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; heist very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies (Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the bodying and of itself—or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwisted cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the of style: colours, hemlines, cut, accessories—but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost)always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwisted 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwisted, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression. (Entwisted 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwisted about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as inorganizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification—in particular, cosmetic surgery (Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in footnote to a more general piece of research. Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Vergie posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever-greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors. It always involves, for example loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Vergie 2000, 1). Entwisted explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwistle explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwistle 2000,138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Vergine reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations. By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Vergine 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.† (Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse nobody modification. Entwistle sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order â€Å"she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favazza in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes (1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability taco-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behaviour, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favazza, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favazza sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favazza, depends on whether there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of ourselves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery and explores its significance and complexity. Ianthe first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that today, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic interventions well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only, the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness â€Å"as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages of each constructed category are subject to change as society changes. The ideal is to be to move from the negative category to the positive category; the â€Å"catch† is that categories are subject to frequent change. Gilman and other researchers refer to â€Å"the discourse of ‘passing.’ â€Å"This discourse came into existence during the racially charged nineteenth century, and is, according to Gilman, â€Å"the ver

Terrorism and Culture of the Middle East Essay -- Muslim Cultural Reli

Terrorism and Culture of the Middle East Introduction In 1993, a Harvard political scientist named Samuel P. Huntington wrote a controversial article entitled â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations† in Foreign Affairs. At this point the Gulf War was still fresh in the minds of most Americans. The most poignant issues at the time were the threat of Suddam Hussein, nuclear weapons, and the establishment of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. Also months later, the World Trade Center was bombed, which left six people dead and many more injured. These events were perhaps the beginning of Huntington’s hypothesis: â€Å"the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and different groups of civilizations.† Eleven years later, recent events have lead many to believe that Huntington’s prediction was correct. In a world where many global issues stem from opposing nations and/or cultures, Huntington’s hypothesis proves to be relevant. Based on the increased and more severe activity taken by non-western civilizations to preserve religion and customs in a world that is increasingly influenced by Western philosophy, cultural differences among civilizations has presented itself at the forefront of international relations today. Faith and religion go hand in hand, especially when you begin to examine the teaching of multiple groups. Although these two words have different meanings, they are often mixed up, merge and appear to have one meaning. Faith is defined as a belief in, devotion to, or trust, in someone or something without having proof. Religion on the other hand is taking these beliefs and turning them into attitudes that you live and govern your life by. As you see with the religions of the world today, ... ... http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/mepp/index.htm http://www.state.gov/ Huntington, Samuel P. â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations.† Foreign Affairs. (Summer 1993): 1-22. â€Å"Iraq and Straw; Israel and Road Map.† Israel National News. 23 Mar 2003. < http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=41128> Jenkens, Brian Michael. â€Å" The future Course of International Terrorism.† World Future Society. 2001. < http://www.wfs.org/jenkins.htm> Shibley, Telhami. â€Å"American Foreign Policy Toward the Muslim World.† Summer-Fall 2001. SAIS Review. Terrorism: Questions and Actions. May 2003. Remnick, David. â€Å"After Madrid.† The New Yorker. 29 March 2004. United Nations Home Page. 2000-2004. < http://www.un.org/english/>

Function and Role of Law in Business Essay

Abstract This paper will define the functions and roles of law in both business and society. Giving examples of such relationships from past and future experiences from the author pertaining to current and past job or industry. While it is beyond the scope of this research paper to do a complete analysis of all the laws and functions pertaining to business and society we will cast a broader look at the significant points that can add value to the paper. Functions of Law in Business and Society The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives a definition of law as â€Å"a rule of conduct or action prescribed or formally recognized as binding or enforced by a controlling authority† (Mirriam-Webster, 2012), thus we infer that the controlling authority in the context of this paper is either the federal or state government and its lower portions in the legal community. It is important to mention that most of the positions in the federal and state legal division of government are either officials that have been elected by citizens of the United States of America (i.e. District Attorneys, Judges, etc.) or qualified candidates that have the appropriate qualifications to meet the criteria as defined by job descriptions (i.e. board certified lawyers, trained investigators, etc.). Concerning the legal system in the United States of America (US), the main function of law is stated from the textbook, Business Law: The Ethical, Global, and E-commerce Environment, 13th Edition (Mallor, et al, 2007, p. 11), the most important functions of law include the following: 1. Peacekeeping. 2. Checking government power and promoting personal freedom. 3. Facilitating planning and the realization of reasonable expectations. 4. Promoting economic growth through free competition. 5. Promoting social justice. 6. Protecting the environment. While we have put to paper the functions of law, they have different roles for business and society. The needs of business laws are seen differently from the perspective of owners and the process of litigation Functions of law in the context of societies perspective are limited to the outside of business law. While one law can be applied to both business and society how they are interpreted can be different and usually is. Role of Law in Business The current status of business law is a complicated labyrinth of state, federal and municipal statutes that work together to ensure predictability and fairness. The overall purpose of business laws include an assurance of fairness, encourage competition through the protection of property rights and ensures that all parties involved understands their obligations and duties while doing business transactions. While the complexity of business laws in the US are daunting, at best, but the effort to create an equitable business community has established laws that lets a small business or a multi-million dollar corporation do transactions in a common level. As a capitalist society we view the right to private ownership is a corner stone of our communities. From entrepreneurs to generations old businesses we view the laws of business in the US as the assurance a business needs to be able to succeed. Roles of Law in Society There are certain roles that law imposes within our society to be able to function in an equitable manner. Maintaining social control is an important part of the laws, making sure that we can maintain a regulated community that does not recognize anarchy. Through this social control we also maintain and protect public order. Without out we can’t maintain a civilized society. An equitable law helps us to resolve disputes in an orderly manner while also facilitating changes that are inevitable as society changes. Within these changes one of the roles of law in society is bringing justice to our  communities. Through an established system, laws can dispassionately produce justice in fair and predictable manners. Author Experience of Business Law As a freelance website designer and developer, including Internet marketing, laws pertaining to the world wide web have been fought about and are still in the infant stages. The Internet is a multi-national entity, transcending boundary lines that are not clearly mark as it is. There is no physicality to where the Internet can be maintained and the creators made it that way on purpose. An example of new laws fought over and established in the US is state taxes. States in the US were losing tax revenue as customers where not buying products locally and using sites like Ebay and Amazon to procure products in-state, but not paying taxes. Eventually state laws established who should pay state taxes on purchases, developers had to start developing new systems within the electronic commerce (ecommerce) systems to be able to accept state specific tax withholdings within their payment system. The law had to be revised to make it equitable within businesses that sold products in a brick and mortar environment and businesses that sold their products in the world wide web. References Mallor, J., Barnes, A., Bowers, L., & Langvardt, A. (2004). Business Law: The Ethical, Global, and E-commerce Environment, 13th Edition. Retrieved on October 8, 2012, from University of Phoenix Resource. Law – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved Oct 08, 2012, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/law Sean, M. (2011). The Legal Environment of Business: A Managerial Approach. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Marketing Challenges in the Global Economy Essay

Abstract This article discusses some challenges faced with product development in the global economy. Brief case studies of Apple, eBay, and Levi Strauss & Co., provide real-world examples of the challenges – competition, reach of influences, infringement, etc. Embracing technological advances, such as social media, is essential for leveraging a competitive edge, provide the company can operate ethically. Marketing Challenges in the Global Economy Introduction The world is getting smaller, figuratively speaking, and companies must continually reinvent themselves to remain competitive in the global economy. A constant introduction of seemingly ever-changing variables create challenges for big businesses and start-ups alike, and while technology creates its own set of challenges, leveraging its benefits in marketing can propel a company to the leader’s board. But while technology has created new marketing opportunities – especially in engaging with consumers – companies need to be ever cautious about maintaining an ethical marketing strategy. Challenges in New Product Launches Companies face various challenges when developing products in the global economy. Some of these challenges are more distinct to specific industries, while others are universal. Twenty years ago, the biggest challenges with product development in the global economy were communication with manufacturers, especially when dealing with manufacturers halfway around the world, and the speed of production. Rapidly evolving technology has on one hand eased these, but also created new sets of challenges. The same technology that brought the world 24-hour news service also meant greater access for scrutiny, as well as a greater consumer expectation for full disclosure of business practices. Increasingly, people want to know that companies are running ethical production operations (Pelsmacker, Driesen & Rayp, 2005). Environmental sustainability, fair trade and wages, and safe and healthy work conditions are issues that companies have to consider more than ever. While technological advancement has granted easier interaction with manufacturers around the world, it has not changed the fact that reach of influence is still a challenge. Independent start-ups now have virtually the same global market access as multinational corporations. Big businesses can no longer assume the competitive edge. And all of these companies, big and small, operating internationally, have to compete with local businesses. This is why operating across a spectrum of socioeconomic and cultural consumer bases requires an understanding of the psychographics for each target audience. Another challenge in product development, especially for technology-based companies, is the risk of patent infringement. More tech dollars are spent in the courtroom than on the research and development (Duhigg & Lohr, 2012). Technology firms make money suing each other back and forth. Case Study 1: Apple Under the direction of Steve Jobs, Apple seemed to have no problem delivering products to the global market that transcended cultural boundaries – iPod, iPhone, iPad, Macbook. The key was simple, user-friendly products. Are Macbooks worth their price tags? Was the first iPhone worth $500? Product valuation has been a question largely irrelevant For Apple. It was able to defy the odds by creating a demand for the products, a key to pricing a product line (Guiltinan, 2011). Still, Apple, as with any tech firm, is at risk of being overshadowed by the next greatest innovation, as seen in the latest battle of the smartphone wars (Reuters, 2012). It is a back-and-forth war that extends beyond the front line that is the retail floor. Behind the scenes, Apple and every other tech device and software developer are engaged in costly patent litigation. Apple recently won more than $1 billion from Samsung (Pepitone & Goldman, 2012). Likewise, Samsung is taking legal action against Apple for patent infringement on the iPhone 5 (Musil, 2012). Other challenge that Apple provides a prime example is ethical oversight of offshore production. Apple’s Chinese factories, run by Foxconn, have received a lot of heat for work conditions and unfair wages that have resulted in mass suicide of employees, brawls, and halting production (Garside, 2012). Case Study 2: eBay Since 1995, the internet auction giant has been providing a consumer-to-consumer (C2C) service that revolutionized e-commerce, but its success has not been without challenges. Acting essentially as nothing more than an internet moderator between C2C transaction, eBay has not had to deal with all of the same issues as Apple, such as the controversy of sub-par factory conditions. But it has faced some of the other challenges synonymous with technology firms. Patent infringement has haunted eBay. For example, MercExchange sued eBay for unlawfully using its patented software to create the eBay â€Å"Buy It Now† feature (Larson, 2010). Likewise, eBay has had to compete with other e-commerce auctions around the world. It is the standard in most western markets, but could not win in China against TaoBao (Ou & Davison, 2009). After battling for market dominance eBay conceded to TaoBao, showing that even corporate giants are sometimes challenged in reach of influence. But eBay celebrates its failures just the same as its successes. With rapidly advancing technology, the minds behind eBay have sometimes had to make decision quickly, without conclusive research, and adjust later. If the decision resulted in a failure, they at least knew what direction not to evolve in (Ignatius, 2011). Case Study 3: Levi Strauss & Co The apparel industry is probably most notoriously associated with running factories in sub-par conditions (Brown, Deardorff, & Stern). Even iconic American denim brand Levi’s is not innocent of this. Competition in the 1990s forced the company to move much of it’s production offshore, where it was soon implicated along with dozens of other brands in sweatshop operations (Shenon, 1993). More recently, ease of access into the market has created a lot of competition for Levi’s. Furthermore, emerging fashion markets have been turning their focus to local designers, further challenging Levi’s reach of influence (Grail Research, 2009). To ensure survival, Levi’s has taken steps to reinvent its image through fresh marketing campaigns to match its fresh designs (Frey, n.d.), like its recent â€Å"Go Forth† campaign. Technology and New Product Development Social media has radically changed the marketing landscape. Advertising used to be a one-directional conversation – television, radio, and magazines told consumers what to buy, and consumers were limited in their ability to denounce these sales pitches. Now marketing is most certainly dialog that requires input from consumers. Technology: Facebook MySpace might have introduced the world to the concept of social media, but Facebook took it beyond peer-to-peer and created an environment where businesses and consumers can engage in meaningful dialog (Wilkinson & Thelwall, 2010). This has allowed companies to get direct feedback from consumers, while making consumers feel like they are part of the company. Companies of varying sizes have staged successful Facebook campaigns. Even anti-Facebook campaigns have found success on the virtual playground. As a tribute to Facebook’s IPO, the magazine Fast Company published what it considered to be the five all-time best Facebook campaigns (Iezzi, 2012). Technology: YouTube Celebrities like Justin Bieber and Soulja Boy have defined a new paradigm of stardom, achieving fame through the use of viral video. Social media users are always looking for their 15 minutes of fame, and companies have picked up on this. Numerous brands have launched user-generated content campaigns. This has allowed fresh vision to emerge, while build brand evangelism. One successful campaign of this nature was the Doritos Superbowl ad contest, in which the best user-submitted video was aired during the Superbowl. Technology: Google AdSense The ever-innovative Google developed a method for posting advertisements based on the user’s browsing habits – that, is ads related to page content. Logging onto Gmail, it is no coincidence that the right-column ads share subject matter with the inbox emails. Even the Facebook ads reflect browsing history. While web ads, especially pop-ups, generally invoke negative connotations, they have a certain subliminal effect on consumers. Legal and Ethical Implications in New Product Development As previously stated, advances in technology have allowed easier access for consumers to see the skeletons in the closet, so to speak, of companies. This means companies should be on their best behavior, or expect to have their dirty little secrets discovered. Still, companies continue to engage in unethical, and even illegal marketing. This questionable activity can come in such forms as misrepresentation and misinformation, slander against competition, omission of facts, or outright lying. It can even involve deliberate manipulation of emotions to achieve a desired effect. Legal and ethical implications: Dannon Activia Despite inconclusive evidence in studies (Walker & Buckley, 2006) regarding the benefits of probiotics, Dannon chose to market implied digestive benefits of Activia and DanActive. In turn, the yogurt company found itself engaged in a lawsuit. This is a clear example of why companies should not mislead consumers for profit. Legal and ethical implications: Feed the Children The Feed the Children campaign releases videos that use techniques to deliberately elicit guilt, thus â€Å"inspiring† the the viewer to donate. What they fail to include in the commercials is the fact that the majority of donations goes to administrative costs, that is, salaries (Defoor, n.d.) Legal and ethical implications: Techie trash talk If it isn’t enough to sue each other back and forth over patent infringement, smartphone companies have taken to slandering each other for the competitive edge. Samsung accused Nokia of this with its recent â€Å"Blown Away by Lumina† campaign, in which it allegedly misrepresents the capabilities of the Nokia Lumina against other smartphones (Mukherjee, 2012). Conclusion The examples presented here provide discourse for the challenges of product development in the global economy, and the benefits of technology in marketing. While technological advancement brings along new sets of challenges, the benefits vastly amount to more. Leveraging these benefits in marketing is key for companies to succeed in an increasingly competitive global market. However, under the looming microscope of public scrutiny, companies need to be ever cautious about maintaining ethical marketing strategies. References Brown, D., Deardorff, A., & Stern, R. NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH, (2003).The effects of multinational production on wages and working conditions in developing countries(Working Paper 9669). Retrieved from website: http://www.nber.org/papers/w9669 Defoor, A. (n.d.). Who do they feed?. Retrieved from http://www.themarketingscene.com/index.php/site/topic/who_do_they_feed Duhigg, C., & Lohr, S. (2012, October 07). The patent, used as a sword. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/08/technology/patent-wars-among-tech-giants-can-stifle-competition.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 Frey, U. (n.d.). Reinventing levi strauss & co. CalBusiness, Retrieved from http://www.haas.berkeley.edu/groups/pubs/calbusiness/stories/levi1.html Garside, J. (2012, March 29). Apple’s factories in china are breaking employment laws, audit finds. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/mar/30/apple-factories-china-foxconn-audit Grail Research. Integreon, Grail Research. (2009). T he global fashion industry – growth in emerging markets. Retrieved from website http://www.grailresearch.com/pdf/ ContenPodsPdf/Global_Fashion_Industry_Growth_in_Emerging_Markets.pdf Iezzi, T. (2012). The 5 all-time best facebook campaigns. Retrieved from http://www.fastcocreate.com/1680811/the-5-all-time-best-facebook-campaigns Ignatius, A. (2011). How eBay Developed A Culture of Experimentation. Harvard Business Review, 89(3), 92-97. Mukherjee, W. (2012, April 11). Samsung: Nokia lumia campaign unethical. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/enterprise-it/strategy/Samsung-Nokia-Lumia-campaign-unethical/articleshow/12620894.cms Musil, S. (2012, September 10). Samsung will reportedly sue apple over lte use on iphone 5. Retrieved from http://news.cnet.com/8301-13579_3-57510080-37/samsung-will-reportedly-sue-a